Pingao (or Pikao) the Golden Sand Sedge

Published:  

2005
Pikao, or pingao, is vital for the preservation of New Zealand's sand dune ecosystems. This publication explains why and what needs to be done to protect it.

Full text

Introduction
Botanical Information
Cultural Significance
Pikao's History Since European Arrival
Threats to Pingao
Propagation of Pikao
Sand Dune Ecology
Coastal Sand Dunes Form and Function
The Pikao Recovery Group
Relevant Legislation
Contacts, Links and References
Acknowledgements

Introduction

Pikao is a native sand-binding sedge, coloured a brilliant green and golden yellow or fiery orange. Stunning Pikao stands would have once have been found on almost every sandy beach, from Northland to Rakiura (Stewart Island) and the Chatham's 1,2,3 but is now only found in a few remnant populations or where active replanting programmes have been established.

Pikao is found only in New Zealand and is one of our major native dune builders2. Pikao stabilise the sandy coast by trapping wind blown sand between its leaves and around the base of the plant and the long rope-like rhizomes it sends out2,3. The sand dunes that consequently form are (usually) low, undulating active dunes, allowing continuous sand movement around the plants, which pikao requires to survive2,3.

Pikao is a keystone species. The coastal morphology that pikao created, provided a habitat within which other native coastal species were able to settle, adapt and flourish. Consequently much of our native coastal biodiversity depends largely on the presence of pikao4 to form the coastal geomorphology (beach shape created by geological forces) to which those species are adapted.

Pikao has considerable cultural significance5 and for this reason it is viewed as a good species to foster relations between iwi and the crown in order to meet the obligations under Section 4 of the Conservation Act (1987) "to give effect to the principles of the Treaty of Waitangi". Pikao's conservation priority status is ranked M, being a species that is rare or localised and of cultural significance to Maori6.

The demise of pikao can be attributed to human activity; fire, grazing and trampling by stock and rabbits, vehicle damage, the introduction of marram grass (a highly competitive sand binding grass7) and the continues pressure and demand for coastal land2,3,8,9,10.

Pikao is slowly being re-established and maintained in small pockets around the country. This is largely due to the hard work and commitment of coast and dune care organisations as well as DOC, territorial authorities and other governmental organisations such as the New Zealand Forest Research Institute via the Coastal Dune Vegetation Network (CDVN).

The future of New Zealand conservation lies with the community as government bodies and NGO's are unlikely to have the resources to support the growing number of conservation problems.

The return of pikao as the major dune plant appearing on our local beaches is far off, but the commitment to manage pikao appropriately exists and all that is required now is YOU!!!

References

  1. Courtney, S. P. (1983). Aspects of the ecology of Desmochoenus spiralis (A. Rich.) Hook. f. Unpublished MSc Thesis. University of Canterbury, New Zealand. 
  2. Bergin, D.O. and Herbert, J. W. (1998). Pingao on Coastal sand dunes. Guidelines for seed collection, propagation and establishment. CDVN Technical Bulletin No. 1. Forest Research Institute, Rotorua. 
  3. DoC (1992). Pingao Recovery Plan. Otago Conservancy 1993-1998. Department of Conservation, Dunedin. 
  4. Duncan, M. C. (2001). Impacts of Ammophila arenaria on indigenous dune communities in Mason Bay, Stewart Island. Unpublished MSc Thesis. Environmental Science, University of Otago, New Zealand. 
  5. Herbert, A. and Oliphant, J. (1991). Pingao: The Golden Sand Sedge. Nga Puna Waihanga, New Zealand. 
  6. Molloy, J. and Davies, A. (1994).Setting priorities for the conservation of New Zealand threatened plants and animals. Department of Conservation, Wellington. 
  7. DoC (1997). Ecology and management of invasive weeds. Conservation sciences Publication No. 7. Department of Conservation, Wellington. 
  8. Bergin, D. O. and Herbert, J. W. (1994). Resoration of native plant communities on sand dunes in New Zealand. Paper for the Forth Annual New South Wales Coastal Management Conference, 18-20 Oct, Gosford, Australia. 
  9. Bergin, D. O., FitzSimons, P., Freeman, C., Herbert, J. W. and Kesby, N. A. (1997). Managment of Marram Grass in the Resoration of Indigenous Coastal Dune Vegetation in Australia and New Zealand. Paper accepted for The Pacific Coasts and Parks Conference, 7-11 Sept. Christchurch, New Zealand.
  10. Bergin, D. O. and Herbert, J. W. (1997). Revegetation of Coastal Sand Dunes in New Zealand using Indigenous Species. Combined Australian Coastal Engineering and Ports Conference, Christchurch, New Zealand. 

Botanical Information

These Pikao (or pingao) is also known as the Golden Sand Sedge and its botanical name is Desmoschoenus spiralis1. It is endemic to (found only in) New Zealand's coastal environment and is one of our major sand binders along with Spinifex sericeus (spinifex or kowhangatara) and Austrofestuca littoralis (Sand Tussock or hinarepe), trapping sand to create dune systems2.

Pikao is a native perennial sedge2. Sedges are similar to grasses but can be distinguished from grasses by examining the stem/blades in cross section. Sedge blades are triangular in shape whereas grasses form a straight line.

Pikao resembles tussock in appearance. The foliage is coloured a brilliant green which turn a golden yellow or fiery orange at the ends. The leaves are organised into tufts and are stiff and curled and rough to touch. These characteristics help to minimise moisture loss in the harsh coastal environment and probably afford some protection from salt spray3,4. Pikao leaves turn a golden yellow when dried which is why Maori weavers prize them5.

Pikao are limited by moisture, and a lack of sand movement3. They are more tolerant to root salinity than marram grass6 and prefer exposed, unstable and bare sites2. Pikao's morphology is dependent on location, as its habit varies from north to south2.

Pikao reproduce in two ways, vegetative (rhizomes) (see photo) and sexually (seeds) (see photo)3,6. Rhizomes are long woody rope-like vegetative structures resembling roots that are sent out from the parent plants3. These contain nutrients, water stores and root initials that allow the rhizomes to establish into the sand and to send out leaves1. Rhizomes facilitate the dune building and stabiliation process by producing a large area of plant material and root systems to trap sand3. The extensive root systems produced as a result of vegetative reproduction also allows greater extraction of water from larger masses of sand3 which is essential for pikaos' survival. Vegetative reproduction is the main means of reproduction in pikao, enabling plants to survive indefinately4.

Seeds are produced sexually in the flowerheads6 (see photo). Pikao flowers are brown in colour and arranged in a spiral pattern (hence D. spiralis) on flowerheads that measure between 15-30cm in length2. These are sent up from the plant on long sturdy stems. Seeds then develop on the flowerheads in spikelets6 and mature between December and February, depending on location (maturity is reached later in more southern, cooler locations). Mature seeds are shiny, brown, egg-shaped and flat on one side  however the exact shape depends on where the seed is located within the spikelet6. Seeds also vary in size with the largest being about the size of a match head2.

Learn more about seed collection and propagation.

Wind dispersal is the primary mechanism for dispersal over short distance, whereas transportation via seawater allows dispersal over longer distances3. Pikao seeds appear to have a dormancy mechanism which ensures seed viability over the longer-term3,6. Dormancy seems to set in shortly after seed maturity, after which germination may follow after the first year3. The length of time seed may remain viable for is unknown. A natural seedbank of unknown age exist at Island Park, Dunedin. There had been no existing plants in the area, but plants appeared following sand disturbance at a DCC sand mining operation7.

References

  1. Herbert, A. and Oliphant, J. (1991). Pingao: The Golden Sand Sedge. Nga Puna Waihanga, New Zealand. 
  2. Bergin, D.O. and Herbert, J. W. (1998). Pingao on Coastal sand dunes. Guidelines for seed collection, propagation and establishment. CDVN Technical Bulletin No. 1. Forest Research Institute, Rotorua. 
  3. DoC (1992). Pingao Recovery Plan. Otago Conservancy 1993-1998. Department of Conservation, Dunedin. 
  4. Moore, L. B. and Adams, N. M. (1963). Plants of the New Zealand Coast. Paul's Arcade, Hamilton and Auckland. 
  5. Sykes, M. T. and Wilson, J. B. (1989). The effects of salinity on the growth of some New Zealand sand dune species. Acta Botanica Neerlandica, 38(2), June. 
  6. Courtney, S. P. (1983). Aspects of the ecology of Desmochoenus spiralis (A. Rich.) Hook. f. Unpublished MSc Thesis. University of Canterbury, New Zealand.  
  7. P.pope, pers.comm. Reserves Officer, Dunedin City Council, Dunedin, New Zealand. 

Cultural Significance

Pikao has a strong cultural, spiritual and traditional significance to Maori. It has legends associated with it and is highly prized as a weaving material. The renaissance in Maori culture has served pikao well as it has meant that attention has been drawn to its plight and attempts to re-establish it to provide a sustainable source of weaving material has assisted in its conservation.

Note: The Ngai Tahu use the word pikao to describe Desmoschoenus spiralis, while North Island iwi use the word pingao. The difference in dialect between North and South Island is significant and pikao has been used here reflecting the geographic origin of its writing (Otago).

The Story of Pikao

He Whakatauki:

"Manaakitia nga tukemata o Tane"

"Caring for the eyebrows of Tane"

In the beginning of time there was a great conflict between Tane Mahuta, God of the Forest, and his brother Takaroa, God of the Sea. Takaroa was jealous of Tane Mahuta's success in separating Ranginui, the Sky Father from Papa-tu-a-nuku the Earth Mother. Tane Mahuta tried to end the warring between them and as a sign of peace plucked out his eyebrows and gave them to Takaroa. Takaroa's jealousy was so great that he could not find it in his heart to forgive Tane, and threw the eyebrows back onto the shore. There they grow today as Pikao, the Golden Sand Sedge, as the boundary between the forest and the sea, and in his continuing anger, Takaroa is still fighting against the domains of Tane Mahuta.

The Seaweed Children

Another Rangitane version of the story of pikao, is pikao as one of the seaweed children on the fringes of the sea. From her home she looked up to the land and saw the young and handsome kakaho dancing on the sand dunes. Each time the kakaho made his appearance Pikao became more and more enamoured. Finally she asked permission from Takaroa to leave the sea to meet her lover. Takaroa granted her permission with words of warning that she would never make it.

However driven by blind love, she left the seaweed and crawled across the hot sand. As she struggled up she began to call to the kakaho - but he was interested only in himself. He was in love with his own shape and did not answer pikao's calls. In desperation she called back to Takaroa, who could do nothing but shower her with spray. And there on the sand dunes, the pingao remains to this day.

The children of papa-tu-a-nuku however intervened in the story, and they harvested the pikao and the kakaho and united them in the tukutuku panels on the walls of the wharenui. Each whatu or stich on the tukutuku is known as a living eye and represents a link from the tribal ancestors to the unborn of tomorrow.

Pikao as Taoka

Pikao is regarded as a Taoka (a treasure) by Tangata Whenua as it is one of four native fibres used by iwi for weaving, and is the only fibre that needs no enhancement on the brilliant yellow gold colour it goes when dried. This property has given pikao an elevated status among Maori weavers. Pikao is used extensively on tuku-tuku panels in the wharenui, where the legends of the iwi are told, as well as in the manufacture of kete, whariki and potae (bags hats and mats) and in decorative and modern weaving. The background of this website is pikao woven into a kete. Pikao was worn as a chest protector in battle by South Island Maori and was also a food item, with the young shoots being steamed and eaten.

"Kohikohi kohikohi pikao-e

Mo nga kete raukura o te rangi-e"

Gather up the pikao grass

For the treasured baskets of the sky"

The weaving characteristics of pikao vary around the country as a result of the varying growth habits. Therefore in some areas long leaves of fibre for weaving will be harvested whereas in other places much more fibre may be harvested due to a more compact growth habit and therefore shorter leaves.

The Sustainable Harvest of Pikao

The traditonal pikao harvest was conducted in autumn and the technique employed was to remove the head for the leaves and at the same time remove a side shoot from the plant and transplant it deep in the sand next to the parent plant. This was to ensure the pikao survived, and was also a means to thank Tane Mahuta for his abundance.

In the 1980s an increase demand was experienced for a supply of pikao for weaving. This occurred at a time after pikao had experienced a decline in abundance and this prompted Forest Research Institute to conducted an investigation examining what method of harvest was the most sustainable. The effect of three harvesting methods (clipping of leaves, cutting of whole shoots and wrenching of the middle leaves) were investigated, measuring factors such as plant survival, number of shoots, number of flower heads, harvest season (summer or autumn), and fibre yield.

They found that clipping not onto resulted in the least adverse effects to the plant (survival and mean number of shoots were comparable to unharvested plants), this method was also the most effective (greater number of leaves harvested) and most efficient, as only desirable leaves were selected for clipping so there was minimal wastage as a result of discarded leaves. Both the other methods resulted in damage to the growth shoot causing severe mortality and would inevitably result in some wastage.

Clipping has been recommended as the most desirable harvesting method that will promote a sustainable supply of fibre. Cutting and wrenching should be discouraged as these methods not only damage the growth shoot causing significant mortality, but are also wasteful. It has also be suggested that sustained cutting or wrenching to a pikao plant may also contribute to foredune instability due to a reduction in vegetation cover.

References

Cultural Significance

  1. Herbert, A. and Oliphant, J. (1991). Pingao: The Golden Sand Sedge. Nga Puna Waihanga, New Zealand.

Sustainable Harvest

  1. Herbert, J. Bergin, D. and Kimberley, M. (1996). Sustainable Harvesting of Pingao. Indigenous Forest Management Group, Forest Technology Division, Forest Research Institute, Rotorua.

Pikao's History Since European Arrival

The demise of the once common pikao can be attributed to the arrival of Europeans to New Zealand as inferred by the botanist Leonard Cockayne1 who stated that pikao had been common throughout the country. This decline has largely been a result of bad practices on coastal land (such as fire) and the desirability of coastal land for agricultural and forestry purposes2,3,4,5,6,7.

Examples of bad practices on coastal land can be traced back to 1880's in the Otago region in Murray Thomas's work "A Pakeha's Recollections"6. Here he describes how

"to relieve the monotony of waiting (for frost fish to strand on the beach) and at the same time cater for their comfort, the boys used to set fire to the native grass, and night saw patches of sandhills ablaze".

Consequently he noted that areas of dune that were now devoid of vegetation were blowing out, causing sand to drift over the productive land where people had settled with no signs of regeneration of the vegetation. Subsequently, Thomas introduced marram grass  (Ammophila arenaria) and yellow tree lupin (Lupinus arboreus) after other methods such as shrub fences failed to halt the drifting sand. The success of this revegetation then lead to the fervent sowing of marram grass and lupin around the Otago region, with the resultant dune reformation proclaimed to be a "most gratifying" outcome6.

This method of stabilisation based on recommendations made by Cockayne was then adopted by the Ministry of Lands at the turn of the century to deal with a growing problem of dune instability3,4 and sand drifts inland arising from damaged relict sand dunes7. It was acknowledged that factors such as fire and stock damage from trampling, uprooting and grazing were to blame for this degradation8 and large scale planting of marram and yellow tree lupin was initiated3,4. This prevented further sand drift and erosion of land which had begun because of increased wind exposure through dune blowouts3,6. It also permitted the reclamation of the extensive active dune systems associated with pikao for other purposes, primarily pasture and forestry3,4,6. An additional bonus in using lupin was its ability to fix nitrogen, eliminating the need and cost to fertilise marram, and permitted the planting of pasture and forestry3.

More contemporary examples of bad practice tend to related to recreational activity and include the removal of sand, vehicle damage (by dune buggies, trail bikes and 4-wheel drives), bonfires, as well as pressures from residential and industrial activity in coastal areas, weeds and pests and allowing stock onto dune lands.

The practice of planting marram and lupin to protect dunelands continued unabaited throughout the 20th century until the 1980's when lupin blight appeared, threatening the stability of marram dunelands3. This problem provided an opportunity to examine the potential for native to be used to once again to achieve stable dunes systems3.

Based on Cockayne's observations of what were the major indigenous sand binders, investigation into the use and restoration of these species has been advanced primarily by the Forest Research Institute, and has lead to the establishment of the Coastal Dune Vegetation Network (CDVN)3,4,5. Their findings have enabled the gradual adoption of coastal rehabilitation schemes around the country.

Unfortunately forestry management continues to use exotics species in the management of forestry estates9, many of which are located in coastal areas that would once have been part of natural dune systems.

References

  1. Cockayne, L. (1911). Report on the dune areas of New Zealand plants, their geology, botany, and reclaimation. Parlimentary Paper C. 13. Department of Lands, Wellington, New Zealand. 76p.  
  2. DoC (1992). Pingao Recovery Plan. Otago Conservancy 1993-1998. Department of Conservation, Dunedin.  
  3. Bergin, D. O. and Herbert, J. W. (1994). Resoration of native plant communities on sand dunes in New Zealand. Paper for the Forth Annual New South Wales Coastal Management Conference, 18-20 Oct, Gosford, Australia.  
  4. Bergin, D. O., FitzSimons, P., Freeman, C., Herbert, J. W. and Kesby, N. A. (1997). Managment of Marram Grass in the Resoration of Indigenous Coastal Dune Vegetation in Australia and New Zealand. Paper accepted for The Pacific Coasts and Parks Conference, 7-11 Sept. Christchurch, New Zealand.  
  5. Bergin, D. O. and Herbert, J. W. (1997). Revegetation of Coastal Sand Dunes in New Zealand using Indigenous Species. Combined Australian Coastal Engineering and Ports Conference, Christchurch, New Zealand.  
  6. Thomas, M. G. (1944). A Pakeha's recollections. The reminicences of Murray Gladstone Thomas. Extracts relating to early Dunedin. Eccles, A. (ed). A. H. & A. W. Reed.  
  7. Moore, L. B. and Adams, N. M. (1963). Plants of the New Zealand Coast. Paul's Arcade, Hamilton and Auckland.  
  8. Cockayne, L. (1919). New Zealand plants and their story. Second edition, Governement Printer, Wellington. 269p.  
  9. Gadgil, R. L., Sandberg, A. M. and Lowe, A. T. (1999). Two seedling rooting media and subsequent growth of a N-fixing plants in a New Zealand coastal sand-dune environment. New Zealand Journal of Forestry Science, 29(2), 195-202.

Threats to Pingao

The threats to the continued existence of pingao are many and varied.  In ecosystems where pingao still inhabits large areas the greatest threats are competition from the introduced plants marram grass and tree lupin, and browsing by stock, deer, rabbits and hares.

Threats and damage as a result of human recreation and coastal development tends not to be such a problem as many of the areas where these activities occur have already been largely denuded of pingao.

Marram Grass

Marram grass (Ammophila arenaria) is an exotic sand-binder and dune builder and can be found on virtually every beach in New Zealand. It is a silvery green coloured perennial grass, native to Europe and has been widely introduced around the world as a dune stabiliser1.

New Zealand lies within marram's native latitudes of 30 to 63 degrees2 providing a temperate climate that it favours3. Marram suffers from a lack of vigour in warmer climates4 and this has been suggested as a reason why marram is more of a conservation management problem in the cooler southern areas of New Zealand5.

Botanical Information

Marram requires active sand burial to stimulate growth (like pingao), and both species go moribund when sand movement is limited6. Unlike pingao however, marrram thrives under rapid burial1, surviving burial rates that would bury pingao, making marram a highly competitive plant. Consequently, marram tends to dominate areas that accumulate sand rapidly at the expense of pingao 7.

Those areas where pingao remains may be because they are areas receiving slower burial, which do not favour marram growth7.

Slower burial typically occurs with coarser particles as they are more difficult for the wind to transport7. Pingao may be found in areas that feature more coarse sand and gravel, such as Kaitorete Spit (south of Christchurch7 ). The exact location of marram or pingao dominated dunes will depend on the sand source, shape of the beach or embayment, and the direction of the prevailing wind7.

Marram's leaf structure and arrangement allows it to trap sand more efficiently than pingao7. It typically forms taller steeper dunes that are more densely vegetated, frequently exclude any other vegetation to form pure marram dunes3. Marram, although hardy1,8, may have a lower tolerance to salinity than pingao 9,10 which may be a factor that explains differences in pingao and marram-dominated dune systems.

Marram’s primary method of reproduction is vegetative rhizomes6 although it also produces seeds1. The rhizomes are extremely vigorous and can colonise new areas by breaking off (e.g. in a storm event). These fragmented rhizomes can remain viable after extended immersion in seawater1, enhancing their colonising abilities.

Marram's Interaction with pingao

Marram exludes pingao in two ways. First, due to marram's superior sand trapping abilities, it is able to deprive pingao of sand causing it to go moribund. Secondly, because marram grows quickly, developing extensive root and rhizome systems it is able to outcompete pingao for moisture, resulting in desiccation on pikao6,7. It has been suggested that this desiccation slows pingao’s  growth, resulting in burial and death6,7.

Marram as a Conservation Problem

Both marram and tree lupin are regarded as important threats to pingao 11. The Department of Conservation has rated marram grass 12/12 on its effects on ecosystems, based on ratings for significant change to structure and/or composition of the community; suppression of regeneration of native species; persistence over time and whether it increases the fire hazard12. It has also ranked 18/21 on a biological success rating, based on maturation rate; seeding capacity; dispersal; establishment/growth; vegetative reproduction; competitive ability and resistance to management12.

Strategic management of marram is site-based and focuses on areas where there is a large pingao population with high site values.

To ensure their high biodiversity values are maintained, marram is controlled at several sites around New Zealand. The herbicide used is either Gallant or Hurricane.  Application methods include helicopter, Argo and Knapsack.

Regardless of the methods used, repeated and intensive treatment will be required14,15. Both herbicides are grass-specific. and do not affect any other plant species. Unfortunately this means that the native grass species (such as the native sand tussock Austrofestuca littoralis) are susceptible to the herbicides used to control pingao and care is needed to avoid these plants. Research has shown that sand tussock has a substantial seed bank thus allowing natural regeneration of this species5.

Controlling marram ensures the natural geomorphic processes are set back in motion, the natural succession of plants will be re-established and the biota, function and character of the dunelands will be restored15.

Extensive research has been undertaken to understand the impact of marram removal on natural ecosystem processes.    The research has found that over time natural processes are restored and native vegetation such as pingao increases in density.

Lupin

Lupin (Lupinus aboreus) was introduced in conjunction with marram as it as nitrogen fixer to provide a nutrient source for marram allowing it to remain vigorous17. Lupin also negatively interacts with pingao by shading it out18. Because lupin usually occurs with marram, it means that pingao will often face a multitude of competitive pressures, severely hampering its ability to persist.

In the late 1980's lupin in New Zealand suffered an infection by lupin blight, severely affecting the population and offering pingao a respite17. Although lupin has recovered to some extent, the Forest Research has been investigating other nitrogen fixing alternatives, which may see the introduction of further threats from other exotic species to the dune environment19. Moves such as this should proceed with caution and be considered a threat to pingao and other coastal species until proven otherwise. An awareness of this issue should be sought by those managing pingao recovery so they may stay abreast of developments in this area.

Stock and Pest Damage

The negative impacts of stock have been noted as far back as 1880's20. Stock was observed damaging the structural integrity of pingao dunes, opening them up to erosion and blowouts and requiring the introduction of marram and lupin as measures to protect against this17,20. Fencing of areas of pingao vulnerable is the only management measure that can protect pingao from tramping. Frequently these areas are located on private land (such as in the Catlins), so fencing costs may be meet by the land-owner, although they may instead have to be funded by a coast care organisation or DOC.

Rabbits and hares21,22 and possums18 have both been noted browsing pingao. Plants particularly vulnerable to browse are young plants and pose a major threat to revegetation projects. It appears that older plants (after first flowering) are no longer platable23. Sheep have also been noted browsing pingao, but only when there was no other vegetation available22.

Preliminary investigations are underway to examine the effectiveness of an animal repellent to discourage browsing. This repellent (Treepel) has already been found to be effective for rabbits, possums and hares on pine seedlings24.

Other Human Activities

Pikao that is threatened by coastal development may be best managed by the RMA3,17 and the associated generation of Regional and District Plans (via identification of sensitive areas that contain stands of pingao). An awareness by local territorial authorities will also need to be exercised when any coastal amenities etc. are developed to ensure areas of pingao are not adversely affected.

Damage can also be attributed to recreational activities. Particularly 4 wheel driving and trail biking, which can badly damage otherwise healthy pingao stands. These activities also exacerbate erosion problems by damaging the structural integrity of the dunes and pingao ability to trap sand by damaging the plant. Bonfires, barbecues and cigarette stubs all pose a fire risk that threaten pingao stands and people not restricting themselves to walkways causes erosion problems that threaten to bury or expose and desiccate pingao plants.

References

  1. Pickart A. J. and Saywer J. (1998). Ecology and restoration of Northern California Coastal dunes. California Native Plant Society. 152p. 
  2. Huiskes 1979 cited by Pickart A. J. and Saywer J. (1998). Ecology and restoration of Northern California Coastal dunes. California Native Plant Society. 152p. 
  3. Bergin, D. O., FitzSimons, P., Freeman, C., Herbert, J. W. and Kesby, N. A. (1997). Managment of Marram Grass in the Resoration of Indigenous Coastal Dune Vegetation in Australia and New Zealand. Paper accepted for The Pacific Coasts and Parks Conference, 7-11 Sept. Christchurch, New Zealand. 
  4. Kerby 1986 cited by Bergin, D. O., FitzSimons, P., Freeman, C., Herbert, J. W. and Kesby, N. A. (1997). Managment of Marram Grass in the Resoration of Indigenous Coastal Dune Vegetation in Australia and New Zealand. Paper accepted for The Pacific Coasts and Parks Conference, 7-11 Sept. Christchurch, New Zealand. 
  5. Jul. A.. Hilton, M. and Henderson, R. (1999). Patterns and Processes of Marram Invasion Mason Bay, Stewart Island and Recommendations for Marram Management. Department of Geography, University of Otago, Dunedin. 
  6. DoC (1995). The interaction between Marram and Pingao on Sand Dunes. Completion of Permanent Plot Studies. Science for Conservation, 3. Department of Conservation. 
  7. DoC (1992). Pingao Recovery Plan. Otago Conservancy 1993-1998. Department of Conservation, Dunedin. 
  8. Timmins. S. M. and MacKenzie I. W. (1995). Weeds in New Zealand Protected Natural Areas Database. Department of Conservation Technical Series No. 8. Department of Conservation, Wellington. 
  9. Esler, A. E. (1970) Manawatu sand dune vegetation. Proceedings of the New Zealand Ecological Society 17, 41-46. 
  10. Sykes, M. T. and Wilson, J. B. (1989). The effect of salinity on growth of some New Zealand sand dune species. Acta Botanica Neerlandica, 38(2), 173-182. 
  11. DoC (1998a). The impact of weeds on threatened plants. Science and Research Internal Report No. 164. Department of Conservation, Wellington. 
  12. DoC (1997). Ecology and management of invasive weeds. Conservation sciences Publication No. 7. Department of Conservation, Wellington. 
  13. DoC (1998b). Department of Conservation Strategic Plan for Managing Invasive Weeds. Department of Conservation, Wellington. 
  14. Pickart, A. J. (1997). Control of European Beachgrass (Ammophila arenaria) on the West Coast of the United States. California Exotic Pest Plant Council Symposium 1997. 
  15. Hilton, M. (2000). Marram Control in Southern New Zealand. Paper presented at the Coastal Dune Vegetation Network conference, Brighton, Christchurch, New Zealand. 
  16. Moore, L. B. and Adams, N. M. (1963). Plants of the New Zealand Coast. Paul's Arcade, Hamilton and Auckland. 
  17. Bergin, D. O. and Herbert, J. W. (1994). Resoration of native plant communities on sand dunes in New Zealand. Paper for the Forth Annual New South Wales Coastal Management Conference, 18-20 Oct, Gosford, Australia. 
  18. D. Nelson (pers. comm.). Department of Conservation, Coastal Otago Area Office, Dunedin. 
  19. Gadgil, R. L., Sandberg, A. M. and Lowe, A. T. (1999). Two seedling rooting media and subsequent growth of a N-fixing plants in a New Zealand coastal sand-dune environment. New Zealand Journal of Forestry Science, 29(2), 195-202. 
  20. Thomas, M. G. (1944). A Pakeha's recollections. The reminicences of Murray Gladstone Thomas. Extracts relating to early Dunedin. Eccles, A. (ed). A. H. & A. W. Reed. 
  21. Bergin, D.O. and Herbert, J. W. (1998). Pingao on Coastal sand dunes. Guidelines for seed collection, propagation and establishment. CDVN Technical Bulletin No. 1. Forest Research Institute, Rotorua. 
  22. Courtney, S. P. (1983). Aspects of the ecology of Desmochoenus spiralis (A. Rich.) Hook. f. Unpublished MSc Thesis. University of Canterbury, New Zealand. 
  23. P.Pope (pers. comm.) Reserves Officer, Dunedin City Council, Dunedin, New Zealand. 
  24. FRI (1988). Animal Repellents for tree seedlings. What's new in Forest Research. No. 162. New Zealand Forest Research Institute.

Propagation of Pikao

Pikao plants can be propagated using one of three methods;

  • From seed
  • Cuttings
  • Or transplants.

Propagation from seed is the recommended method as parent plants will suffer less injury and seedlings are more adaptable that cuttings or transplants.

Please note that the guidelines below are reproduced from recommendations made in:

  • Pingao on Coastal sand dunes. Guidelines for seed collection, propagation and establishment. CDVN Technical Bulletin No. 1 (1998).
     
  • Pingao the Golden Sand Sedge. Nga Puna Waihanga (1991).
     
  • Pingao Recovery Plan, Otago Conservancy 1993-1998. Department of Conservation, Dunedin.

Seed Collection and Preparation

Pingao seeds are 3-5mm long and 2-5mm wide, about the size of a match head. The shiny brown egg-shaped nuts develop in the 15-30cm long spirally arranged flowerheads. The seeds ripen in late spring and during summer, with more southern populations tending to ripen later than their northern counterparts. This is probably a result of climate differences, as pingao seed ripening periods in a given area will be dependent on the temperature; higher temperatures will bring seeding on earlier. The seeding period, typically 2-4 weeks long will lengthen in areas where there are a large number of plants because of a greater number of seedheads. 

Ripening Periods
  • Auckland Region: mid-November onwards
  • Otago Region: mid-December to January
  • Southland: as late as February

Begin seed collection as soon as seed fall begins (when a little husk or seed is on the ground), and attempts should always be made to collect fewer seedheads from a greater number of healthy plants so some seed is retained locally. It appears that as the seed matures on the seedheads a dormancy mechanism may be enforced making germination more difficult so efforts should be made to collect seedheads as early as possible. 

Harvesting of seed heads should be done with a pair of scissors or sharp knife, cutting the stem below the seedhead. Store the seedheads in a paper or hessian bag rather than a plastic bag as the seedheads will tend to sweat, increasing chances of fungal infection and making the seed more difficult to remove.

Avoid harvesting seedheads when the seeds are not yet ripe (when the seed is a greenish colour). At this stage the seeds are difficult to remove when the seedhead is rubbed, a sign it is not yet ready for collection.

Once the seedheads have been harvested dry them out. Either in the sun, or in a paper bag in a hot water cupboard for about a week. Seeds can be easily separated from the head by either rubbing with your hand or a blunt object. The husk and seed will be removed together and it is not necessary to separate them (thankfully as it is a painstaking process usually involving tweezers). Once the seedheads have been rubbed, scrunch the seed and chaff with your fingers to help loosen the seeds from the husk and spikelet formation.

Seed (and husk) should either be sown immediately to prevent a loss in viability or alternatively they may be stored in plastic bags in the refrigerator for several months until they need to be planted without any apparent loss to viability.

Frequently used Timelines for raising and planting pikao

Cold Climate and no heated glasshouse facilities with protection from the frost

  • Sow seed in autumn
  • Prick seedlings out in early spring
  • Plant in the following autumn to spring period (12-15 month-old seedlings) 

Warm climate or heated facilities

  • Sow seeds in winter
  • Prick seedlings out in spring
  • Plant in the following autumn to spring periods (9-12 month-old seedlings). 

In Otago region

  • Sow seeds in spring
  • Prick seedlings out in late summer
  • Plant in late winter

Seed Sowing and Germination

Forest research trials have found pikao seed easy to germinate with no need for pre-treatment. In Otago, germination success has been found to be more variable and currently research is being conducted to examine any treatments that may improve germination rates. FRI did find variation in seed germination between different sites in one year.

The basic procedure for sowing seeds is as follows:

  • Sprinkle seeds and husk over a firm bed of seed-raising mix of 1:1 peat:sand/pumice in seed boxes.
  • Cover the seeds with a 3-5mm layer of the seed-raising mix or course sand and water.
  • Use of a fungicide (e.g., Capstan) is recommended as pikao seeds are prone to fungal infection.
  • Keep trays moist, FRI place inverted seed boxes over trays to maintain high humidity and provide regular light waterings.
  • When germination begins, remove the covers and ensure protection from rodents and birds. The young shoots are also palatable to snails so poison pellets may be required.
  • Seeds tend to germinate more quickly in warmer months (11-20 days in late summer compared with 26-31 days in winter) and seedlings will be ready for pricking out around 4-8 weeks when they are 7-10cm tall.

Say the following karakia when sowing or planting your pikao:

"Kia tipu tonu koutou, ake ake ake!"
"May you grow on for ever and ever!"

Raising Seedlings

Once the seedlings are 7-10cm tall (when the second leaf is forming), they can be pricked out. FRI has made the following recommendations.

  1. Carefully remove and separate individual plants from the seed tray.
     
  2. Trim long roots and ensure the main tap root is not distorted when replanted.
     
  3. Prick out into one of the following containers 
  • Tinus rootrainers
  • Hillson rootrainers
  • Cardboard milk carton
  • Yogurt pottles
  • PB3/4 or PB2 polythene planter bag
  1. Ensure free drainage for good plant survival
     
  2. Keep humidity to a minimum but keep moist particularly over summer
     
  3. Use a light potting mix (e.g., 3:1 peat:sand/pumice)
     
  4. Fertilise, using either;
  • a slow release fertiliser (e.g., fine Magamp 2-2.5kg/cubic metre)
  • or weekly liquid feeds at half strength (ensuring the plants are not water logged).
  1. Ensure the area is free from browse and maintain regular weeding

Good drainage and low humidity are features of the dune environment so at all times ensure the plants are not water logged and that humidity is kept low. Where rainfall or humidity is high, special precautions will need to be made.

Research has shown well-nourished plants survive better once planted in the wild and that excessive hardening off provides no survival benefits.

Plants will be ready to be planted out into the wild when they have reached 40-50cm in height with a root collar diameter of 5-10mm. When this size is reached will depend on local growing conditions, but will be around 9-15 months. Before planting out, the root system should be large enough to bind the potting mix in the container so that it remains intact during transfer from the container to the planting hole. Therefore this point will be reached earlier with smaller containers.

How to choose what type of container to use

There is a trade off between using smaller or larger plant containers.

  1. Large containers
  • Plants grown in larger containers were found to have faster initial growth rates when planted out into the field.
  • The larger root system may also impart better abilities to cope with dessication.
  1. Small containers (e.g., Hillson rootrainers)

The main benefits of using smaller containers are:

  • Decreased cost per plant to raise ($0.90-$1.20 c.f. larger/older plants @ $2.50 minimum)
  • Take up less space so more plants may be raised
  • Easier to transport so freight costs are reduced and man power is less

Therefore the use of smaller containers may be well suited to large scale replanting programmes, because of cost effectiveness and were the loss of some plants can be buffered.

Ultimately the kinds of containers used will depend on financial and physical constraints as well as the conditions of the sites were replanting is to occur (e.g., large plants may be required at volatile sites to provide greater resilience improving the chances of successful replanting).

Planting Pikao on Dune Sites

General guidelines

  • Site should be exposed, unstable and be bare or sparsely vegetated
  • Planted with slow release fertiliser
  • Planted in spring
  • Planted in clumps of about 20 plants at 50cm spacing 

Site

Pikao plants will perform best on sites that are exposed, unstable and have bare or sparse vegetation cover, therefore they are ideal stabilisation plants for coastal management of erosion or blowouts, particularly if planted with Spinifex, the native sand tussock (not an option in southern areas as Spinifex is only found above Marlborough).

Planting

Planting should be done in clumps of around 20 plants, spaced about 50cm apart. Cutting the 2-3cm of the bottom of the plug will remove concentrations of roots at the ends and will encourage new growth. Plant seedlings fairly deep so that the root collar is buried approximately 5cm into the sand, which improves survival from sand scouring and and increases root contact with moist sand layers. 

Timing

Planting success is greatest in spring as they are exposed to fewer storms but may be susceptible to early drought if the root system is not developed sufficiently. Planting in autumn means plants will be exposed to the mass sand accretion and erosion associated with winter storms, which they may not be able to withstand. FR trials showed that spring plants had significantly higher survival rates after one year when compared with autumn planting (78% c.f. with 41%). 

Application of horticultural aids

Application of a slow release fertiliser at the time of planting is also recommended as it significantly improved growth rates and can improve survival. Application of Hydrogel has no apparent effect on pikao growth or survival. Broadcast application of urea or fast-release nitrogen fertilisers at 200kg/ha to stands of pikao improves vigour, but this should be applied carefully to pikao located near marram so as to ensure marram does not overgrow pikao.

Say the following karakia when sowing or planting your pikao:

"Kia tipu tonu koutou, ake ake ake!"
"May you grow on for ever and ever!"

Propagation from Cuttings

Cutting the tips from healthy plants may be harvested in mid-summer when the most vigorous growth is occuring. At this stage new basal shoots will grow quickly from the parent plant if the growing tip is removed. To ensure there is sufficient food reserves and root initials, make sure the cutting is 4cm (40mm) minimum. Trim the leaves to 1/3 their original length and then the cuttings are then simply planted deeply into a free draining seedling raising mix and kept moist. Roots should begin to appear after a month or so and the mature plants will be ready for planting 6-12 months later.

References

  1. Bergin, D. O. and Herbert, J. W. (1998). Pingao on coastal sand dunes. Guidelines for seed collection, propagation and establishment. CDVN Technical Bulletin No. 1. New Zealand Forest Research Institute Limited.  
  2. Herbert, A and Oliphant, J. (1991). Pingao: The Golden Sand Sedge. Nga Puna Waihanga.  
  3. DOC (1992). Pingao Recovery Plan Otago Conservancy 1993-1998. Department of Conservation, Dunedin. 

Sand Dune Ecology

Pikao require active sand movement to thrive1,2, and are therefore primarily a foredune species. Pikao only partially traps sand as a result of the density of its foliage1 and the plants morphology1,3 creating active sand dunes; those that still allow a degree of sand movement. This is opposed to the fixed dune profiles created by marram that traps and prevents all sand movement (see photo). These active pikao dominated sand dunes generally create a low undulating hummocky dune profile1.

A pikao dominated dune system will be characterised by many low sand mounds with gullies scoured out behind1. These gullies transect the watertable (see photo) creating micro-sites that are moist with reduced sand movement (moist sand is heavier and more 'sticky' and therefore requires greater wind velocities to shift the sand)1. These areas also have reduced exposure to salt spray and wind1. This creates an ideal environment for other coastal species to colonise and these areas will often support diverse communities. For this reason, pikao is regarded as an indicator and keystone species for natural biodiversity.

Because active sand dunes allow some sand movement, they create a more dynamic environment. Therefore, pikao dominated dunes systems change constantly with sand accretion (build up) and erosion, while retaining diversity by constant creation of various ecological niches at different stages of succession.

References

  1. DOC (1992). Pingao Recovery Plan. Otago Conservancy 1993-1998. Department of Conservation, Dunedin.  
  2. Bergin, D.O. and Herbert, J. W. (1998). Pingao on Coastal sand dunes. Guidelines for seed collection, propagation and establishment. CDVN Technical Bulletin No. 1. Forest Research Institute, Rotorua.  
  3. Holland, L. D. (1981). Plants and sand dube development. Ammophila arenaria vs. Desmoschenus spiralis on Kaitorete Barrier. Unpublished Msc thesis, University of Canterbury. Christchurch, New Zealand.

Coastal Sand Dunes Form and Function

Sand dunes are formed at the interface between the sea and land. They are formed from sand which is eroded and ground rock, derived from terrestrial (e.g., glacial or river) and oceanic sources (e.g., coral reefs). The form of dune systems will be dictated by a number of factors, including the shape of the coastline, shape of the beach, currents and swell of the ocean, prevailing wind, frequency of storm events, and particle size of the sand.

One of the most important things to realise with the coastal and dunal environment is that it is dynamic, like the forces that shape it, so these environments are always changing. Accepting change can be a difficult for humans to accept (such as the common perception that damage to established forest in storms is bad) but it is important to acknowledge that change is a natural and health part of this ecosystem, and helps to maintain biodiversity.

Due to the extensive coastal development that characterise much of our beaches now, stabilisation has been a large focus. This has lead to the extensive planting of marram grass that form high densely covered dunes that prevent most sand moving beyond the foredunes, affording protection to developed areas. This form of planting has proven successful for human habitation but has come at the expense of the native sand binders and associated plants. This section intends to outline the values associated with the coastal dune environment as well as the processes associated with dune building and the dynamics of the different forms.

Importance of Coastal Sand Dunes

Natural Character

They are part of the natural character of the coastal environment, which is protected under the Resource Management Act 1991 as a "Matter of National Importance". It is important to note the natural character refers to the unmodified coastal environment. Therefore, human development is generally regarded as a denigration of this natural character.

Maintaining the natural character (including the natural vegetation and morphology) also aids in shielding human development from view, so management and maintenance of coastal dunes is important in continuing this function, while protecting their natural character.

Water Quality

Coastal sand dunes act as filters for water, enhancing and maintaining coastal water quality. The denigration of coastal dunes by draining and pollution of coastal wetlands, as well as the disposal of sewerage. These impacts may be ameliorated by the protection and revegetation of the coastal dune landscape as well as the protection and enhancement of dune wetlands.

Coastal Protection

As mentioned above, coastal dunes gives protection to the land behind, acting as a buffer against eroding wave action. Therefore, dune structural integrity must be maintained to ensure their ability to provide this form of protection. This integrity can be maintained by ensuring vegetation cover is not reduced or damaged and that repair to dunes following erosion or blowouts uses replanting and sand fences to aid natural repair as opposed to using concrete or rocks, which lead to further erosion problems (due to end wall effects).

Cultural and Archaeological Values

The dune environment has significant cultural and archaeological values arising from the occupation of Maori in the past. Those areas where occupation is known provide a valuable source of pre-european records relating to human settlement as well as serving as reminders of our history. These areas can also contain urupa (ancient burial grounds) which are regarded as waahi tapu (sacred). Consequently it is important that these areas are retained, and protection can only be afforded properly if there is an accurate understanding of coastal processes.

Patterns and Processes

There are a number of different kinds of dune system, and specific features of dune systems that can be identified.

Incipient Foredunes

These are the newly developing dunes, initiated by wind blown sand being trapped by vegetation and other obstructing matter such as driftwood.

This is the area where sand-binders such as pikao thrive as they are well adapted to this highly variable environment.

Incipient foredunes are not necessarily permanent features that develop into established foredunes, and there fate will be decided by factors such as wave action.

Established Foredunes

Established foredunes develop from incipient foredunes by steadily growing with sand accretion on the seaward side. The lee (landward side) becomes more stable and protected from salt spray and sand deposition and nutrients increase. This supports the colonisation of intermediate species (and stabilise the foredune further).

The development and morphology of foredunes will depend on a variety of factors and include:

  • Sand supply
  • Degree of vegetation cover
  • Plant species present
  • Rate of wind blown sand accretion and erosion
  • Frequency and magnitude of wave and wind forces and erosion
  • Dune scarping and and overwash processes
  • Beach-surfzone type
  • The medium to long term beach state (stable, accreting or eroding)
  • The extent of human interference and use
  • The resultant dunes will range from well vegetated and stable to highly erosional.

Backdunes

Backdunes are those dune located beyond the established foredunes and are typically more stable and covered with intermediate woody and herbaceous species. They are still subject to sand accretion and erosion processes but to a lesser extent. Eventually these dunes will be succeeded and covered with woody shrub and tree species forming coastal forest.

Blowouts

These are depressions in the sand that are cup- saucer- or trough-shaped. They are caused by wind erosion of an existing sandy substrate. Cup/saucer shaped blowouts are shallow dishes and usually occur on flat/low dune terrain, whereas trough shaped blowouts are deeper with steeper erosional walls and are more elongated. See the illustration below.

There are three characteristics of blowouts:

  • Depositional Lobe; where sand from the walls and deflation zone is being deposited
  • Deflation zone/basin; where sand has been scoured out. Often these reach the water table or the basal material (rocks). Both these factors prevent further erosion and revegetation often occurs.
  • Erosional walls; margins of the blowout.

An incipient foredune will often form across the throat of a blowout, reducing sand inundation and allowing revegetation.

Parabolic Dunes

These are inverted U-shaped (parabola) or V-shaped dunes when viewed from the air. They have trailing arms that extend seaward, with a despositional lobe at the bottom of the U or V. They can be formed from blowouts or from the migration of sand at the landward end of a dune field where discrete lobes may form.

The development and migration of parabolic dune will depend on vegetation cover, species and type (woodland or grassland), wind velocities and directional variability of the wind, and dune size.

Stage one: The foredune vegetation is reduced by storm wave erosion.

Stage two: Erosion continues, the deflation basin expands, the depositional lobe advances downwind, and a parabolic dune develops.

Stage three: The foredune reforms across the parabolic dune throat. The parabolic continues to advance downwind forming elongated trailing ridges.

Transgressive Dunefields

Transgressive dunes are also known as mobile or migratory dunes, and sand drifts.

Transgressive dunefields will are generally located where wave energy is high and sand supply is or was moderate to high, or where significant coastal erosion has occurred.

Transgressive dunefields can be unvegetated, partially vegetated or completely vegetated (relict) and the dunes often have a sinuous/fish scale shape.

Good examples of transgressive dunefields can be found in Northland,Farewell spit, Manawatu-Wanganui region and Raglan. Often these have been stabilised with marram grass planting.

Information contained in this page is based on:

  • Coastal Sand Dune Form and Function. Patrick A, Hesp. CVDN Technical Bulletin No. 4. Forest Research, Rotorua.
  • This is recommended as essential reading and details of how to get a copy can be obtained from Touchwood Books.

Pikao Recovery Group

The Pikao recovery group is a interdisciplinary cross organisational group consisting of local Runaka, Department of Conservation, Dunedin City Council, Otago University, Yellow-eyed Penguin Trust, and local persons with an interest in the coastal environment.

The group was formed in 1992, coinciding with the creation by DOC staff of The Pikao Recovery Plan for the Otago Conservancy1. A symposium held at Otakou Marae in 1993 created significant interest from groups all over the South Island. The two-day symposium covered topics such as propagation methods, restoration techniques, and featured weaving demonstrations and practical propagation demonstrations.

Since that time, the Pikao Recovery Group meet regularly and have overseen the planting of a number of sites which include:

  • Waikouaiti Beach
  • Warrington Beach
  • Te Rauone Beach
  • Pilots Beach
  • Victory Beach
  • Sandfly Bay
  • St Clair
  • St Kilda
  • Moturata Island Taieri Mouth.

The group has also been involved in surveying sites where remnant plant colonies are to be found, and in protecting these from further loss. Much of this work has involved co-ordinating volunteers from youth, conservation, and other organisations as part of the group’s advocacy for the protection of the coastal dune environment. There has been further work by the group in utilising Pikao in amenity horticultural areas to increase the profile of the plant as a dune stabiliser and provide examples of the plant in accessible areas. These areas include:

  • John Wilson Drive
  • Lawyer's Head

Also, an interpretative plot exists at the Portobello Marine Studies Centre.

Kai Tahu papatipu runaka and roopu whanau groups have shade house facilities and work with pikao in partnership with the Pikao Recovery Group at Huirapa, Otakou, Moeraki and Moturata. Plant propagation is being undertaken by a number of groups around the district from seed collected on established and created sites. 

The group have developed a Memorandum of Understanding that will be a guiding document for future development of pikao as an important plant for cultural, amenity and coastal protection uses. The Memorandum seeks to formalise the relationship between land management organisations and the community in partnership.

Sowing the Seeds: Protection, Advocacy, & Community

Pikao can be successfully grown from locally collected seed as iwi, the Department of Conservation, Dunedin City Council, and various community organisations around Dunedin have proven. From these small beginnings several trial plantings have occurred on a number of sites around Dunedin and Otago. Trials have assisted the Recovery group in creating larger more established plant areas for sustainable harvest and for seed collection. The Pikao Recovery Group have through its activities created a wide community network that through its inter organisational nature are able to integrate its information and expertise to community groups requiring information. Further, the group have been able to assist local coastal organisations establish their own areas of pikao and advocate community protection of our fragile dune environment. The Pikao Recovery Group feels that it is appropriate to extend the work of reintroducing pikao to the coastal region because of the following:

  • The Group itself has a stable membership that have through dialogue and actions a common focus on the use, introduction, and monitoring of Pikao in the coastal zone.
  • Questions on cultural use and protocols for use have iwi and land management processes developed that assist in management questions of cultural harvest.
  • Community organisations are better organised and developed than previously through community funding and liaison work with iwi, DOC, and the Dunedin City Council.
  • There is significant local interest in coastal issues due to recent climatic change that has altered traditional beach areas.
  • There is strong community feeling over ecosystem protection and public response to protecting unique sites for our mokopuna (grandchildren).

Current Pikao Recovery Group work includes:

  • Creating an inventory of all plant populations, plotting their position on GPS and describing their general condition and whether or not they are natural or replanted. 
  • The 10, 000 plants project was initiated by the planting of over 100 trays of seed in November 2000. These plants will be ready for pricking out in late summer early Autumn 2001 and will be planted out in 2002. This is a great opportunity for the community to get involved due to the sheer mass of plants. 
  • A hui has been proposed for winter 2001 to discuss pikao conservation and to promote and encourage participation by interested groups. 
  • Research into pikao seed germination and the effectiveness of Treepel, an animal repellent at discouraging browse. 
  • Production of a pamphlet on pikao. 
  • Promotion of pikao and The Pikao Recovery Group at Seaweek.
  • For more information on the Pikao Recovery Group feel free to contact those listed.

Reference

  1. DOC (1992). Pingao Recovery Plan. Otago Conservancy 1993-1998. Department of Conservation, Dunedin.

Relevant legislation

The work of the Pikao Recovery Group today is based on the needs and interests of communities and groups who want to see this native plant re-established on the Otago coast. The Legislative basis for pikao recovery is found in the Conservation Act, the Resource Management Act, and the Treaty of Waitangi, which states the following:

"6. Cultural, historical, spiritual, amenity, and intrinsic values are the heritage of future generations and damage to these values is often irreversible."

"11. It is important to protect representative or significant natural ecosystems and sites of biological importance, and to maintain the diversity of New Zealand’s indigenous coastal flora and fauna."

Because of its cultural significance, Pikao is a good plant to assist in facilitating relations between the crown and iwi in order to give effect to the Treaty of Waitangi which states that the Department of Consevation must

" 4. give effect to the principles of the Treaty of Waitangi"

Pikao's conservation status is classified within category M using the Species Priority Ranking System1; Species that are rare and localised and of cultural importance to Maori. Pikao is not however regarded as a threatened species, and therefore does not have priority for funding. This is because in some areas of New Zealand, particularly in the North Island, there are still significant stands of pikao.

A great number of beaches with high rankings in the National Sand-dune and Beach Vegetation Inventory of New Zealand have remnant populations of pikao on them, some of which are considered of national importance (for instance the Catlins).

References

  1. Molloy, J. and Davies, A. (1994).Setting priorities for the conservation of New Zealand threatened plants and animals. Department of Conservation, Wellington.

Contacts, Links and References

Contact List

  • DOC; Coastal Otago Area Office, +64 3 477 0677: Jim Fyfe, Dean Nelson, Matt Ellison.  
  • Dunedin City Council; +64 3 477 4000, Reserves Officer; DCC website: www.dunedin.govt.nz.  
  • Yellow Eyed Penguin Trust; +64 3 479-0011.Moponui Ecological Environmental Society; 

Also see the Bush organisation Restoration Directory Otago (contact list) for other organisations near you (these are not necessarily currently involved in pikao conservation).

Websites

Book lists of NZ native plants Touchwood Books website

References

  • Bergin, D. (2000). Sand Tussock on Coastal Sand Dunes. Guidelines for seed collection, propagation and establishment. CDVN Technical Bulletin No. 3. New Zealand Forest Reseach Institute Limited.
  • Bergin, D. O. and Herbert, J. W. (1997). Revegetation of Coastal Sand Dunes in New Zealand using Indigenous Species. Combined Australian Coastal Engineering and Ports Conference, Christchurch, New Zealand.
  • Bergin, D. O. and Herbert, J. W. (1994). Resoration of native plant communities on sand dunes in New Zealand. Paper for the Forth Annual New South Wales Coastal Management Conference, 18-20 Oct, Gosford, Australia.
  • Bergin, D. O., FitzSimons, P., Freeman, C., Herbert, J. W. and Kesby, N. A. (1997). Managment of Marram Grass in the Resoration of Indigenous Coastal Dune Vegetation in Australia and New Zealand. Paper accepted for The Pacific Coasts and Parks Conference, 7-11 Sept. Christchurch, New Zealand.
  • Bergin, D.O. and Herbert, J. W. (1998). Pingao on Coastal sand dunes. Guidelines for seed collection, propagation and establishment. CDVN Technical Bulletin No. 1. Forest Research Institute, Rotorua.
  • Cockayne, L. (1911). Report on the dune areas of New Zealand plants, their geology, botany, and reclaimation. Parlimentary Paper C. 13. Department of Lands, Wellington, New Zealand. 76p.
  • Cockayne, L. (1919). New Zealand plants and their story. Second edition, Governement Printer, Wellington. 269p.
  • Courtney, S. P. (1983). Aspects of the ecology of Desmochoenus spiralis (A. Rich.) Hook. f. Unpublished MSc Thesis. University of Canterbury, New Zealand.
  • Dell, P. and Vin, M. (1988). Sand dune and erosion stabilisation eastern coromandel. Hauraki Catchment Board.
  • DOC (1992). Pingao Recovery Plan. Otago Conservancy 1993-1998. Department of Conservation, Dunedin.
  • DOC (1993). Pingao on Otago Peninsula: Botanical Report. Conservation Advisory Science Notes No. 9. Department of Conservation, Wellington, New Zealand. 12p.
  • DOC (1995). The interaction between marram and pingao on sand dunes. Completion of permanent plot studies. Science for Conservation: 3. Department of Conservation, Wellington, New Zealand.
  • DOC (1997). Ecology and management of invasive weeds. Conservation sciences Publication No. 7. Department of Conservation, Wellington.
  • DOC (1998a). The impact of weeds on threatened plants. Science and Research Internal Report No. 164. Department of Conservation, Wellington.
  • DOC (1998b). Department of Conservation Strategic Plan for Managing Invasive Weeds. Department of Conservation, Wellington.
  • DOC (1999). Rehabilitation of coastal foredunes in New Zealand using indigenous sand-binding species. Science for Conservation 122. Department of Conservation, Wellington, New Zealand.
  • Duncan, M. C. (2001). Impacts of Ammophila arenaria on indigenous dune communities in Mason Bay, Stewart Island. Unpublished MSc Thesis. Environmental Science, University of Otago, New Zealand.
  • Esler, A. E. (1970) Manawatu sand dune vegetation. Proceedings of the New Zealand Ecological Society 17, 41-46.
  • FRI (1988). Animal Repellents for tree seedlings. What's new in Forest Research. No. 162. New Zealand Forest Research Institute.
  • FRI (1994). Restoration of native plant communities on sand dunes. What's new in Forest Research. No. 232. New Zealand Forest Research Institute.
  • Herbert, A. and Oliphant, J. (1991). Pingao: The Golden Sand Sedge. Nga Puna Waihanga, New Zealand.
  • Hesp, P. A. (2000). Coastal Sand Dune Form and Function. CVDN Technical Bulletin No. 4. Forest Research, Rotorua.
  • Hilton, M. J. (2000). Marram Grass Control in Southern New Zealand. Paper presented at the annual Coastal Dune Vegetation Network conference. Brighton, Christchurch, 29 March-1 April.
  • Johnson, P. N. (1992). The sand dune and beach vegetation inventory of New Zealand. II, South Island and Stewart Island. DSIR Land Resources, Christchurch New Zealand.
  • Jul. A.. Hilton, M. and Henderson, R. (1999). Patterns and Processes of Marram Invasion Mason Bay, Stewart Island and Recommendations for Marram Management. Department of Geography, University of Otago, Dunedin.
  • Molloy, J. and Davies, A. (1994).Setting priorities for the conservation of New Zealand threatened plants and animals. Department of Conservation, Wellington.
  • Moore, L. B. and Adams, N. M. (1963). Plants of the New Zealand Coast. Paul's Arcade, Hamilton and Auckland.
  • Partridge, T. R. (1992). The sand dune and beach vegetation inventory of New Zealand. I, North Island. DSIR Land Resources, Christchurch New Zealand.
  • Pickart A. J. and Saywer J. (1998). Ecology and restoration of Northern California Coastal dunes. California Native Plant Society. 152p.
  • Pickart, A. J. (1997). Control of European Beachgrass (Ammophila arenaria) on the West Coast of the United States. California Exotic Pest Plant Council Symposium 1997.
  • Thomas, M. G. (1944). A Pakeha's recollections. The reminicences of Murray Gladstone Thomas. Extracts relating to early Dunedin. Eccles, A. (ed). A. H. & A. W. Reed.
  • Timmins. S. M. and MacKenzie I. W. (1995). Weeds in New Zealand Protected Natural Areas Database. Department of Conservation Technical Series No. 8. Department of Conservation, Wellington.
  • Walls, G. (1990). Pingao. Cultivation, provenance and planting trials. Botany Division, DSIR, Havlock North, New Zealand.
  • Wiedemann, A. M. and Pickart, A. (1996). The Ammophila problem on the Northwest Coast of North America. Landscape and Urban Planning, 34, 287-299.
  • Wilson, H. D. (1982). Stewart Island Plants: Field Guide Publications, Christchurch, New Zealand.

Forest Research Unpublished Reports

  • Herbert, J. W. and Bergin, D. O. (1991). Experimental Rehabilitation of dunelands with Pingao. Unpublished Report. New Zealand Forest Research Institute. Rotorua, New Zealand.
  • Herbert, J. W. and Bergin, D. O. (1992). Performance of Pongao planted on dunelands after 2 years. Unpublished Report. New Zealand Forest Research Institute. Rotorua, New Zealand.
  • Herbert, J. W. and Bergin, D. O. (1993). New Zealand Forest Research provenance trials-establishment of planting trials. Unpublished Report. New Zealand Forest Research Institute. Rotorua, New Zealand.
  • Herbert, J. W. and Bergin, D. O. (1995). Pingao provenance outplanting trials, Port Waikato NZFRI establishment report. Unpublished Report. New Zealand Forest Research Institute. Rotorua, New Zealand.
  • Herbert, J. Bergin, D. and Kimberley, M. (1996). Sustainable Harvesting of Pingao. Indigenous Forest Management Group, Forest Technology Division, New Zealand Forest Research Institute, Rotorua.

Other New Zealand Research

  • Courtney, S. P. (1983). Aspects of the ecology of Desmoschenus spiralis (A. Rich.) Hook. F. Unpublished MSc thesis, University of Canterbury. Christchurch, New Zealand.
  • Holland, L. D. (1981). Plants and sand dube development. Ammophila arenaria vs. Desmoschenus spiralis on Kaitorete Barrier. Unpublished Mscthesis, University of Canterbury. Christchurch, New Zealand.
  • Nelson, D. (2000). Management and retention of pingao (Desmoschoenus spiralis) in stable black dune sites. University of Otago wildlife management report. Unpublished report, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand.
  • Partridge, T. R. (1995). Interaction between marram and pingao on the sand dunes. Completion of plot studies. Science for Conservation: No. 3. 27p.
  • Peace, M. (1975). The plant ecology of the dune system of Kaitorete Spit, Christchurch. Unpublished MSc Thesis, University of Canterbury. Christchurch, New Zealand.
  • Sykes, M. T. and Wilson, J. B. (1989). The effects of salinity on the growth of some New Zealand sand dune species. Acta Botanica Neerlandica, 38(2), June.
  • Sykes, M. T. and Wilson, J. B. (1990). An experimental investigation into the response of New Zealand sand dune species to different depths of burial by sand. Acta. Botanica Neerlandica, 239(2), 171-181.

There are many other books, reports and research that relates to pikao. This is just a list of some relevant references that we have come across that may be useful to you.

Acknowledgements

These web pages are designed to provide a basic resource not only about pikao, but also about coastal ecology and conservation. As far as possible contacts and references for the different areas have been provided so that you may get informed and involved easily. These web pages aim to inspire you to get out there and get involved, as the future of conservation now more than ever lies largely with community participation.

  • Many thanks to the CDVN for the production of such good bulletins, some of which provided a large amount of the basic information contained within this website. Keep up the good work!  
  • To Sue Heath for initiating this website project and for having the confidence to hand it over to me. 
  • To Jim Fyfe for his enthusiasm and encouragement as well as the rest of the PRG. 
  • Especially to Megan Duncan and Mike Hilton for their photos and slides and good conversation. 
  • To all those committed to coastal conservation and rehabilitation as your persistence in all aspects of the area will ultimately be the success story for the coastal environment.

These web pages have been set up for the communities benefit, so please let us know if you are a coastal conservation provider so local people may join you.

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